NEW IDEAS
Enlightenment thinkers borrowed ideas from history to develop a new worldview. They believed the use of reason could improve society. To achieve this progress, they had to share their ideas with others.
French Philosophers
French philosophers popularized many Enlightenment ideas. One philosopher, Voltaire (vohl-TAYR), mocked government and religion in his writings. Instead of trusting God to improve human happiness, Voltaire believed humans could improve their own existence. Having gotten in trouble for some of his writings, Voltaire also spoke out against censorship—removal of information considered harmful. He argued, “I [may] disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” His statement emphasized the Enlightenment goal of freedom of thought.
Enlightenment thinkers made an effort to share their thoughts with the public. Philosopher Denis Diderot (dee-DROH) edited a book called the Encyclopedia. This book included articles by more than 100 experts on science, technology, and history. The French king and the pope both banned the Encyclopedia. In spite of censorship, Enlightenment ideas spread. One important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon, a social gathering held to discuss ideas. Women often hosted the salons. Most Enlightenment thinkers did not view women as equal to men. However, in hosting salons women could influence opinions.
British Writers
Women and men also began to publish their ideas in books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles. British writer Mary Wollstonecraft, for example, argued that women should have the same rights as men. Enlightenment thinkers even applied their ideas of freedom and progress to economics. British writer Adam Smith believed economics was governed by natural laws. He argued that governments should not try to control the economy and that economic growth came when individuals were free to make their own choices. Like many Enlightenment thinkers, his ideas would have a lasting effect.
Locke
The English philosopher John Locke had a major influence on Enlightenment political thought. In 1690, he published Two Treatises on Government. In this work, Locke argued for government as a contract between the ruler and the people. Because a contract bound both sides, the ruler’s power would be limited. In fact, Locke thought that government existed only for the public good of the people. Locke also declared that all people had certain natural rights, which included the rights to life, liberty, and property. He thought that no person was born with special privileges. According to Locke, the government should protect the natural rights of its citizens. If it didn’t, the people had the right to change rulers.
Montesquieu
Frenchman Charles-Louis Montesquieu (mohn-te-SKYOO) was a member of the nobility. He built on Locke’s ideas in The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748. Montesquieu claimed that a government should be divided into separate branches to protect people’s freedom. In this idea, known as the separation of powers, each branch of government is limited by the others. As a result, the separate branches must share power. None of them can control the government completely.
Rousseau
French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau (roo-SOH) criticized divine right. He believed in popular sovereignty (SAHV-ruhn-tee)—the idea that governments should express people the will of the people. In The Social Contract, published in 1762, Rousseau declared, “Man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains.” According to Rousseau, citizens submit to the authority of government to protect their own interests, entering into a “social contract.” This contract gives the government the power to make and enforce laws as long as it serves the people. The government should give up that power if it is not serving the people.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
The French king ruled over a society split into three groups called estates. The clergy were members of the First Estate and enjoyed many privileges. Nobles made up the Second Estate. They held important positions in the military, the government, and the courts.
Most French people belonged to the Third Estate. Included were peasants, craftworkers, and shopkeepers. The Third Estate paid the highest taxes but had few rights. Many members of the Third Estate were poor and hungry. They felt that the king didn’t understand their problems. While the common people starved, King Louis XVI had fancy parties. His queen, Marie-Antoinette, spent huge amounts of money on clothes. Meanwhile, the government was badly in debt. Louis XVI wanted to raise money by taxing the rich. To do so, in 1789 he called together members of the three estates.
The meeting did not go smoothly. Some members of the Third Estate were familiar with Enlightenment ideas. These members demanded a real voice in the meeting’s decisions. Eventually, the Third Estate members formed a separate group called the National Assembly. This group demanded that the king accept a constitution limiting his powers. Louis XVI refused to agree to such demands, angering the common people of Paris. Violence broke out on July 14, 1789. On that day a mob stormed a Paris prison, the Bastille. After forcing the guards to surrender, the mob took guns stored inside the building and freed the prisoners. The French Revolution had begun.
Revolution and Change
After the Bastille fell, the revolution spread to the countryside. Peasants there were afraid that the king and nobles would crush the revolution. In events called the Great Fear, peasants took revenge on their noble landlords for years of poor treatment. In their rage and fear, the peasants burned country houses and monasteries.
Other leaders of the revolution were taking peaceful steps. The National Assembly wrote a constitution. It included some of the same ideas found in the writings of Enlightenment philosophers, the English Bill of Rights, and the Declaration of Independence. Called the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, this document guaranteed some freedoms for citizens and distributed the payment of taxes more fairly. Among the rights the Declaration supported were freedom of speech, of the press, and of religion. It also guaranteed that men could take part in the government.
Louis XVI was forced to accept the new laws, but new laws did not satisfy the revolution’s leaders. In 1792 they ended the monarchy and created a republic. The next year, the leaders put Louis XVI on trial and executed him. Facing unrest, in 1793 the new French government began to order trials of anyone who questioned its rule. In the period that followed, called the Reign of Terror, thousands of people were executed with the guillotine. This machine beheaded victims quickly with a heavy blade. The Reign of Terror ended when one of its main leaders, Maximilien Robespierre, was himself executed in July of 1794.
Although the Reign of Terror was a grim chapter in the story of the French Revolution, the revolution wasn’t a failure. Eventually, France created a democratic government. Enlightenment ideas about freedom were powerful. Once they took hold, they would not go away. Many Europeans and Americans enjoy freedoms today thanks to Enlightenment ideas.
PPT THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu
